Far-Eastern and Ancient Seekers of Truth
Thales of Miletus
A Discussion in Alexandria
Confucius and Lao-tzu
Gautama Buddha
In all eras throughout history there were seekers of truth, earnest and compassionate people who strove to understand the meaning of life and foster the interests of all creatures. These people belonged to all kinds of professions and were found among all peoples. Many seekers of truth worked in small circles, and we do not know anything about them today. Others made their thoughts available to the public, and particularly gifted ones were even able to hand their thoughts down to following generations. In this work I would like to present some of these seekers of truth, especially those who served as an example for my own life.
Until this day it has been claimed that the Church teaches enormously precious values to the world. I, however, claim that exactly the opposite is the case, and that I need not really prove this opposite because it is more than evident. The direction the Church has pursued can easily be judged from the climax of its power during the Middle Ages, when faith assumed dimensions which were unacceptable even to many members of the clergy.
I deem it necessary to show that even long before Christ there lived people who acted wisely and taught charity. The charity which Christ taught and which the Church has fulfilled only in tiny parts is full of exaggerations. While an animal naturally tries to defend itself when being attacked, Man is taught to wait patiently to receive the next stroke. These pious phrases, which tell us to turn our left cheek to someone who has slapped our right one, have more to do with stupidity than with humaneness and charity. In actual fact the believer is prepared in this way to tolerate renewed strokes, while those with the big brains are allowed to beat others even before anybody has done anything bad to them. Or did the popes march to battlefields or join the crusades in order to offer their cheeks?
The Sermon on the Mount, which is often quoted as one of the finest pieces of the Bible, only comforts »the poor in spirit« to find a better life in heaven, this means those who cannot help themselves: »Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven«. Those who mourn, shall be comforted in heaven, the meek shall acquire a piece of land in heaven, those who hunger and thirst after righteousness shall be filled. "Rejoice, for your reward in the heavens will be very great." Such a philosophy creates good people, lambs who accept everything inflicted on them during their earthly lives! It is very doubtful that Christ really preached such nonsense.
It would be more than necessary to change religious instruction in schools in such a way that it is more than just propaganda for the Church. It is high time to teach children about Confucius, Lao-tzu and Buddha and about what it means to seek and understand the meaning of life, to recognize the truth, to act wisely and to be tolerant.
In the following chapters I will try to describe how it feels to seek the truth, to love wisdom and to prefer knowledge to faith. I want to recount a conversation with Thales of Miletus, a restless seeker of truth. Furthermore, I would like to present an informative discussion which took place at the university of Alexandria between a skeptic, a follower of Epicurus and a friend of the Stoa. Finally, I would like to provide information about Confucius, Lao-tzu and Buddha.
I consulted a vast number of reference books, the most comprehensive one being the thirty-six volume history book by Otto Zierer, who was able to infuse historical data with lively images and to present them not only in an historically reliable, but also in a lively and humane way.
In this context I would like to point out that the interpretation of history does not always necessarily correspond to the actual events. The sources to which historians have to refer may be imperfect, embellished, idealized and sometimes even wrong. Therefore we must not assume that everything we find in print really happened in the way described. Even when falsifications were made unintentionally, there are still many other possibilities of conscious or unconscious distortion of the facts.
For example, if we read reports about how Lao-tzu rode on a buffalo through lonesome places, it is not difficult to detect the legend. But if somebody who heard Buddha speak writes a report on his teachings, he may have misunderstood Buddha, or he may not remember exactly Buddha's words when writing down the report. While copying the report, any other person involved may have made mistakes; furthermore the person who copied the report may have introduced some of his own thoughts and may have corrected the translation in good faith.
We all know how it may happen that a certain person is declared dead. Somebody reports that Mr. Meier has had an accident, the next one says that he had a serious accident; the next person sees Mr. Meier in the intensive care unit of a hospital although he has only broken his leg. And a particularly eager story-teller may even have heard that he has died in the accident.
Of course, things are usually not that bad when it comes to historical data. I just wanted to make clear that the reader should be well aware that one should never believe uncritically each and every written word. And actually it is not so much the correctness of the contents of the single sentences, but rather the spirit of the people that form the subject of the report.
Anyone who studies historical traditions extensively will discover in how different a way various books report about the same thing when only the gist is reported. When studying Buddha's life, for example, I consulted various books and found out that even names of people and places were given in a most inhomogeneous way. So it may be even more difficult for the researcher to find out the correct spelling than the historical data itself.
Thales of Miletus lived in ancient Greece; he was born in about 625 B.C. and died around 545. Thales was a merchant, seafarer and philosopher. Based on historical data, Otto Zierer describes the following encounter between Thales and Epimenides:
From the surf of the sea, somewhere between Cape Zephyr and the small island of Dia the small brown sail of a ship appears. Slowly, as the ship approaches, the hull of the ship becomes visible too. It is the huge bellied hull of one of those ships which the merchants love so much. The skipper heads for the landmark of Dia, behind which the gentle bay of Knossos expands.
The patron of the ship is the merchant Thales of Miletus. After having arrived at the harbor, he settles all the necessary formalities, pays the duty, provides information about his goods and instructs his captain to unship the merchandise. Despite the burning sun he walks through the streets, which at this hour are totally deserted. He wants to visit his old friend Epimenides, whom he highly esteems because of his wisdom and knowledge.
Epimenides lives in a simple wooden house a bit off the town, near to the legendary »Dictaic Cave«. An air of mysticism and magic surrounds him. His long, flowing clothes are embroidered with enigmatic signs that resemble those of oriental priests, Chaldean magicians or Egyptian scholars.
Now the two men sit together in the dark, strangely furnished room. In front of them on the table there is a big, funnel-shaped jar, which is decorated with naïve scenes from the heroic tales, and which serves for mixing the dark Cretan wine with water. Thales, whose vast merchant activities also comprises dealing with earthenware, states that this »crater« was made in a Corinthian workshop. Although he only trades earthenware from Athens and Miletus, he admits without any envy that the Corinthian works are still the more artistic ones.
"It's a long time," says Thales, "since we last met. Our journeys to Crete have become rare. The trading activities of Miletus are increasingly concentrated on Egypt. Since King Psamtik allowed the Hellenist merchants to establish the settlement Naukratis, a market of world significance has evolved. We have a common Sanctuary there, the »Hellenion«; Naukratis has become a meeting place for all Greek ships…"
Epimenides smiles and raises his hand to stop his friend.
"Let us talk about other, more important things, dear friend! I do not care whether Hellenic trade in Naukratis is prospering or not. Egypt has more to offer than wheat, oil and dates."
"Very well, let us leave that to one side…!"
Thales keeps silent for a moment, then he continues talking.
"For some time I was a student at an Egyptian school of priests; by the way, I was not the only Hellene there, but I also met the young Solon from Athens. Do you know him?"
"Yes, of course, I have heard about him. But tell me, what have you learned there about the Isis Cult, about the mysteries involved in evoking the dead and about the ancient, holy pictographic writing system? Fortunate you who were able to learn about dark mysteries and magic right from the mouths of those men who know how to solve the riddles of the underworld like no other mortals!"
Thales rises from his seat and walks to the door through which the sunlight flows into the dark room.
Why should I care about mystics and magic? Look at the sun, the sea, the trees and the blue sky! That's reality and true life! What I wanted to learn from the priests was mathematics, astronomy and meteorology; things that are important for me as a merchant and seafarer."
Epimenides touches the amulet he wears as if he wants to mitigate the offended spirits of the underworld.
What sort of worries you have, Thales! Your heart is filled with salesmanship, but you do not care about the only important thing – the fate of your soul. You have hardly changed."
Thales takes a deep drink from his wine glass.
"You should sail the seas, Epimenides, and you would understand many a thing which you are not aware of in the presence of your Gods and demons. Different is the world for those who enclose themselves in it, from those who encounter it face to face.
When you travel over the blue water for days, totally at the mercy of a tiny nutshell, when you do not see any beach nor island, nor mountain at the distance for lending support to your eye, and when you stand at the bow of your ship pondering, or the stormy winds hiss, the waves roar, heavy rains pour down and you tie yourself to the mast for not being blown overboard, and you stand there as a lonesome man amidst an endless, cruel universe, then, my friend, different thoughts come to your mind from when you are safe and secure on firm ground. You have enough time to reflect, nature and your heart urge you to do so. When facing the roaring sea I have often asked myself: Where does all this come from? Then, as a merchant, you wander through foreign countries, meet different peoples, hear prayers in front of the altars of strange Gods, you stand in front of the huge monuments for the dead which were set up thousands of years ago – the pyramids on the river Nile. The breeze of distance, a breath from the realm of death and the stones' cry for eternity move you. Then another question comes to your mind: What is all this evolving and passing away? This deadly cycle in which you are captured and from which you cannot escape? That's the thoughtfulness of a seafarer and traveler, dear friend, a thoughtfulness which is entirely different from that of the priest…"
Epimenides' eyes glow fanatically.
"You ask for things for which an answer has long been found. The riddles about the where from, the where to and the purpose of our existence are already solved. You know the big secret that unites the Orphic covenant. If you just wanted to join us, Thales, you'd no longer need to ponder painstakingly over these questions or continue your futile search."
"But pondering and seeking, that's what I want!" Thales cries out. "I am not satisfied with the ready-made knowledge the priests and seers present to us: here you are, take and accept it, because that's what the world is like! – No, if I talk of knowledge, I understand it as something that I have searched for and recognized myself, and what I am really convinced of."
"Not everyone is bound to go the long path to enlightenment. But you ought to struggle for the secret of mystic revelations, Thales. This is the highest purpose of human existence. The eternal things were revealed by the Thracian Orpheus. Nobody will ever know more than the Gods revealed to him…"
The merchant smiles an unbelieving smile.
"… of whom nobody really knows, whether, when and how he actually lived!"
"That's what our enemies say! Orpheus did live! How else should he have founded his covenant and have left us his teachings?"
"O no, my friend! All this magic and mysteries come from Asia. I know the melodies of the Babylonian magicians only too well. The Adonis Cult, the secret teaching about Persephone and the messages of Dionysus – all this is not Hellenic. These are thoughts that come from foreign lands, thoughts that conquer the hearts of our people. But above all these are fears of demons - the fear of the abyss of death. Homer did not know any Goddess of death called Hecate who today is worshipped by superstitious people. I attended their celebrations; they were exactly the same rites as the ones the Babylonians celebrated for their gloomy Goddess Labartu.
Look around and see those living. You will find out that everywhere you go the magic of Babylon is winning their hearts. In spring they celebrate the feast of the Anthesterians, which were totally unknown to our predecessors, and they celebrate them according to the traditions of the Babylonian All Souls Feast. To protect themselves against ghosts, they chew hawthorn leaves and spread pitch onto their doorposts. For the deceased they set out pots with seeds and fruits, and they throw honey cakes and other delicacies into the gorges of the earth. When the feasts, which are celebrated with quaking and fear, are finally over, these fools call out to the souls of the dead, of whom they are afraid: »Away, you Kerens, away, the Anthesterians are over! «"
"In fact it is like this," says Epimenides, "but why do you want to argue against it? Isn't it a silver band on the horizon which announces the morning, when people begin to feel that there are not only the dark shadows of the underworld that inevitably await them, but that there are also powers and energies to overcome death and to resurrect and assume a new life?"
"You talk about feelings, Epimenides, but I speak about knowledge! And hope? Hasn't it always been deception that promises things which do not exist yet? No, my friend, I will not succumb to the seduction of these Asian teachings; I cannot believe in Adonis' return, Persephone's resurrection from the dead, or Dionysus' overcoming death. I want a more reasonable explanation of the world. I want to understand the order of the world from my own knowledge."
The priest has got up.
"Listen, oh Thales! If you ask: Where does everything come from? Orpheus can give you the answer. He explains that it was darkness and emptiness, the double-headed dragon that brought forth the egg of the world."
"Stop," Thales vehemently interrupts the fanatic, "All these are confusing claims that cannot be proved. He who believes in these tales will never ever reflect seriously about the primary cause of all things. I do not want symbols but knowledge. And therefore I consider the Orphic teachings more a hindrance rather than a help in research."
"But how do you want to explore the mystery of creation, you, a Man who is bound and subject to fate? Yes, if we were Gods, if we had this Olympic knowledge or wisdom! Have you never felt the conflict of human nature? The yearning ascent of the soul and the earthly gravity and weight of our body which draws us down again? Doesn't the voice in your heart tell you that you need transcendental powers to find redemption?
If you just once joined our nightly Dionysus celebrations, this growing and ascending through the influence of song, wine, dance and frankincense! And when the soul begins to move its wings, when you think you are surpassing the weight of your spirit, but still in the insuperable awareness to be mortal and to remain bound to Earth – then you feel ecstasy. That is elevation, ascent and fall at the same time!"
“I desire neither ecstasy nor unleashing! I've learned sobriety, courage and defiance. Whether it be futile or not, I have learned about the mysteries of the world through my clear faculty of thought. This does not lead to ecstasy, but it helps prevent me from a sobering fall. It does not cause delusion, but it leads to true results…"
“By negating the world of shades, you also deny light, impudently you turn against the realm of the demons and Gods. A fool who wants to be equal to the eternal ones!”
But Thales does not surrender to confusion.
“Let me make my point clear. To the ignorant crowds the eclipse of the sun is a horrible token of supernatural powers. Egyptian scholars, however, have shown me how such an eclipse evolves and how it can be calculated even years before it actually happens. Since I have understood this, the sun's eclipse has lost all its horrors for me, and it has become something comprehensible. And it seems to be similar with other if not all mysteries of our existence. We should explore the universe, explain and dominate it, and the world would be much simpler, more natural and free of any fear. The Gods and Demigods that Homer and Hesiod described in such a childish way, endowed with human properties, do not set any limits to my eternally questioning mind. I must realize and understand, otherwise I won't find peace and quiet."
"And what for?" exclaims Epimenides. "What is at the end of your way? Which God awaits you when you fall from human existence into the abyss of the underworld?"
“No God and no demon await me, my friend. It is the selfless love for wisdom, it is philosophy that urges and drives me…"
It is as Archimedes or »The Sandreckoner« that a great mathematician and physicist who lived in the third century B.C. in Greece is still well known to us. Among others he discovered the calculation of the square root, the solution to the cubic equation, the laws of the center of gravity, of the oblique plane, of the lever and of buoyancy. He built concave mirrors, catapults, mechanical irrigation screws and pulleys. When he realized what powers his pulleys were able to yield, he was so enthusiastic about his discovery that he exclaimed, "Give me a place to stand on and I will move the earth."
While studying a complicated law case he made a wide-ranging discovery: The goldsmith of King Hieron, who was ordered to make a gold crown and given the exact amount of metal to make it, was suspected not to have used all of the gold but to have used some silver instead. So the weight of the crown had actually been maintained but the quality of the metal itself would certainly have deteriorated due to the admixture of silver. So Archimedes said: If silver, which is much lighter than gold, had really been intermixed, the volume of the crown must be bigger than if it was made from pure gold. But how should it be possible to find out the exact volume of a richly decorated and adorned crown?
Long did he think about this difficult problem. One day while considering the question, the wise man entered his bathtub and recognized that the amount of water that overflowed the tub was proportional to the amount of his body that was submerged.
In order to clarify the controversial case, a gold ingot, such as the one the goldsmith had been given to make the crown, thus had to be submerged in a jar filled with water and the overflowing water had to be measured. Then the same had to be done with the crown. If – compared to the water spilt when submerging the gold in the jar – more water was spilt, it was proved that silver had been admixed to the crown. Actually it happened as Archimedes had suspected – the fraudulent goldsmith was unmasked.
Otto Zierer recounts how Archimedes' travels to Alexandria and meets Eratosthenes of Cyrene, the director of the great library and academy. In deep awe the students and scholars of the Mouseion call Eratosthenes »Mr. Beta« according to the second letter of the Greek alphabet. They want to express that Eratosthenes is worthy to be named second after the intellectual heroes Homer, Heraclitus, Plato and Aristotle.
Eratosthenes is familiar with all fields of science, and so Archimedes, who almost exclusively deals with mathematics and physics, admires the great man for his versatility. The director of the Mouseion wrote an important work about ancient comedies and further developed the mathematical theorems of Euclid; he discovered a formula to double the dice, found the prime numbers and calculated the ecliptic slope. His geographic and astronomical research is more than amazing. To measure the circumference of the Earth, he went on an expedition upriver along the Nile to the town of Syene, which was 5,000 stadia from Alexandria. By determining the angle at noon on the day of the summer solstice in both cities and using the different angles he measured, he managed to calculate the circumference of the Earth and stated a total length of 252,000 stadia!
When Archimedes, accompanied by Eratosthenes, enters the library for the first time, he is overpowered by the size and magnificence of the halls and rooms. The light of the lamps that have just been lit illuminates the richly carved ceilings and reflects in the marble of the columns. The huge number of shelves on which hundreds and thousands of papyrus rolls are preserved in scrolls is amazing. "We are proud to own all the scriptures ever written in the inhabited world," explains Eratosthenes to his guest.
The day before Archimedes leaves Alexandria, Eratosthenes leads him up to the roof garden of the Mouseion. There all the scholars of the High School expect him to join a farewell dinner hosted in honor of the scientist from Syracuse. Chrysippus of Soloi, who has been the director of the Stoic School in Athens since Cleanthes' death, is invited to the dinner as well.
After a rich meal that clearly reflects the ancient Egyptian art of cookery, the discourses of those gathered around the table turn to one of the key questions of philosophy – the conduct of life.
Ephialtes, one of the philosophers of the Mouseion and an ardent follower of Epicure's philosophy, fervently defends a sensible and grateful enjoyment of everything that the day may bring.
"According to the great tradition of our school", he says, "Epicure used to convene his friends every now and then in the big park in Athens to celebrate a cheerful feast. He loved wine, songs, Lydian dancers, the spring and the scenic beauty of the Attic landscape. He taught that pleasure is the supreme good, but it does not merely consist in satisfying one's base needs, but rather in liberating one's soul from pain, fear and quick temper, and in affirming and accepting the natural in such a way as it is presented to and perceived by our mind."
Chrysippus nods and agrees with the scholar. "We Stoics too teach self-control and patient endurance of what destiny inflicts on us. The understanding that destiny is predetermined and life in virtue is based on reason are the fruits of our philosophical considerations about the meaning of life."
"According to the words of the master," Ephialtes continued, "philosophy provides its disciples with irrefutable certainty, and this certainty means happiness."
"This ability is not given to any human," contradicts Epimenides, one of the teachers of the Mouseion. "Pyrrho of Elis teaches that the conviction that gaining ultimate knowledge is not possible is precisely the prerequisite of true happiness. There is only probability, but never certainty."
Passionately Ephialtes defends the validity of the Epicurean ideas.
"But why should Epicure's way not certainly lead to bliss? His system is complete: logic guides the mind towards certain understanding of the world and its correlations. It unveils to Man nature and its methodical and sober order. Mental pervasion and clarification of all natural correlations eliminate the horrors of superstition, the fears of life and the restlessness caused by eternal doubts. For a man who has understood that the world was not created by Gods and demons, but is the work of forces and matter interacting according to natural laws, and who follows Epicure's advise and takes up Democritus' teaching which says that everything is due to physical interactions among minute indestructible particles – the atoms – for that man the riddle is solved.
Merely pondering causes restlessness of the soul. A knowing man will never be unhappy. He will enjoy life in full pleasure."
When Chrysippus objects and confronts the Epicurean idea of pleasure with the principle of virtue as the only true and desirable value, Ephialtes, with a reconciliatory smile, raises his glass and proposes a toast to the guest from Tarsus.
"Try to see my point, Chrysippus: Epicure has nothing in common with the school of Aristippus of Cyrene that carelessly teaches: physical lust – eating, drinking, feasting and rejoicing – is the only purpose of a wisely lived life, as after death everything is uncertain! Epicure means refined, mental pleasure, the balanced calmness of the soul and spirit, in which all pain and misery is overcome."
The calm, passionless voice of Epimenides interrupts the speaker.
"In my opinion," he says, "the basic principles of the Epicurean and the Stoic systems can be challenged. Pyrrho of Elis, the founder of skeptical philosophy, agrees with Epicure that bliss is our lives' aim, but he does not consider certain knowledge of the world and its correlations a prerequisite for reaching this aim. I repeat once again: there is no absolute certainty. I always have doubts when judgments gained through reason are considered as incontestable. One should be more modest and should not claim anything as irrevocable. As we are humans and our senses and reason are subject to error, every affirmation should start with the words »maybe« or »it seems«".
Eratosthenes, who, like all Greeks, loves witty, relaxed battles of discourse, jokingly turns to Epimenides.
"So, my dear friend, if I for example claim that your wise head is bare like a model sphere in the hall of mathematics, I can claim this as being actually true without any reservations or »maybe«, can't I?"
Everyone bursts into laughter; only the face of the skeptic remains unmoved.
“I even doubt that," he says, "It may seem that there is not a single hair on my head, but who can actually claim that with unchallengeable certainty? Everyone just sees what his sensing organs perceive, but we are all subject to the shortcomings of earthly life. Even when applying the best instruments or tools, our understanding is based on the use of our five senses – this means on five factors of uncertainty. Timon of Phleion, a pupil of the great Pyrrho, says: three questions stand at the beginning of the search for knowledge. First: How are things? Second: How do we react to them? Third: Which consequences result from our behavior? He also gives answers to these questions. The reply to the first one is: All things are unstable and uncertain; the second one: We must never trust our perceptions and ideas; and the third: as we are surrounded by an ocean of instability, changes and uncertainty, the soul has to recollect itself and has to strive for inner peace in order to gain the bliss of not needing to decide, the bliss of humility!"
"But this would mean that every scientific research becomes meaningless," Archimedes objects. "All striving for absolute truth, in particular in physical, mathematical, astronomic, medical and legal sciences would be condemned to fail right from the beginning. And I dare say that the Hellenic sciences since Aristotle have made enormous progress and have yielded considerable benefits for mankind!"
"That may be doubted," says Epimenides. "That can very much be doubted! Have people become happier, calmer, more peaceful or better since then? Do they no longer have to die young? Have they stopped fighting wars?"
Archimedes exclaims in a voice that clearly reflects his agitation. "But I, Archimedes of Syracuse, object: We have helped mankind a lot! Since Herophilus here at my side found a new healing method for diseases of the eye, the eyesight of many people could be saved, and they are certainly happier than if destiny had inflicted blindness unto them! Since Eratosthenes has found a formula to calculate cubic contents, Egyptian officials no longer need to take bushel by bushel out of the granaries in order to find out how much grain is stored for the village. By simply measuring the height and the circumference of the base of a full granary, the volume can easily be calculated. Since I discovered the law of the weights of solids, it has been possible to calculate the exact weight of any block of stone – even the most giant one – from its volume. This helps bridge builders and building masters of temples and houses and increases security in static calculations. It is no longer necessary to support or distribute thrusts and pressures by multiple security measures. It can be calculated in advance how strong the supporting walls and columns or the vaults have to be to resist the thrust of the weight resting on the walls. These are only a few examples of what science has achieved for the well-being of mankind!"
“You have not rebutted my actual objection, Archimedes", insists Epimenides. "I ask you once again: Is Man happier, greater, better now because of these trivial inventions, which you call knowledge? Just the opposite: it seems to me that humans are increasingly losing ground, that they have become more reckless, greedy and cruel! The exact sciences cannot make Man happier; like a blind man on the road, mankind slowly gropes its way ahead, a way which does not lead anywhere!"
Objections are raised everywhere, only Chrysippus agrees with the skeptic.
"Perfection is only given to the Gods. Our existence is governed by laws which nobody knows and which are predetermined. Maybe the day is near when huge fires are lit and destroy all life on Earth."
"O Hellas," exclaims Archimedes in sneering despair, "where have you gone! In which chaos does your world of thoughts end? Disbelievers and people resigning themselves to destiny set the goals we should strive for! If the world of the Greeks pursues this path, Hellas will really perish, and the time will have come for a younger, more powerful nation, which will re-ignite the fire which is extinct among the Greeks."
Eratosthenes takes the wine crater and fills the glass of the Syracuse scholar up to the rim.
"Drink, Archimedes, and don't take things more seriously than they are. This time has not come yet. The old sources of Plato and Aristotle still flow. And those who, like Pyrrho of Elis and his skeptical school, take nothing for unmistakable still open paths for new thoughts. For despite all uncertainty they dare continue to work, to explore, and to reach - if maybe not the truth - at least a high degree of probability.”